PAPELES DEL PSICÓLOGO Vol. 43-1 Enero - Abril 2022

BARRIERS TO SEEKING AND GETTING HELP IN INTERPERSONAL PARTNER VIOLENCE Women face several barriers to seeking help and withdrawing from IPV relationships. Anderson and Saunders (2003) conducted a meta- analysis of factors associated with leaving an abusive partner, finding that holding traditional religious values and experiencing love towards the perpetrator reduced the odds of withdrawing an abusive partner. Contrary to expectations, women who witnessed domestic violence in their childhood do more likely to escape IPV relationships (Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Kim & Gray, 2008). In addition, marital status and length of the relationship did not predict staying in an abusive relationship. From social determinants of health perspective, research has found that the lack of employment and income are other factors that hold back women in IPV relationships. Kim and Gray (2008) identified that financial dependence was associated with low rates of leaving perpetrators. Indeed, women’s income and employment status were powerful predictors to leave (Anderson & Saunders, 2003). Behavioral variables such as fear to be harmed, shame, poor perception of control, minimizing and denying the abuse are linked to difficulties in acknowledging and withdrawing IPV relationships. Rather, strong social networks characterized by providing informational, instrumental, and emotional support were significantly associated with sustainable wellbeing in women that have escaped abusive relationships (Anderson et al., 2003). While social determinants factors of health such as employment, income, and social networks are crucial to overcoming barriers to withdraw IPV relationships, survivors seldom report saving money or asking for support from others (e.g., family, other survivors, health providers, or police) as coping strategies (Rizo et al., 2017). In this line, medical and mental health providers face the challenge of finding strategies to aid IPV survivors in engaging in healthy emotional support and finding sustainable sources of income. IPV IN LATINAS: BARRIERS FOR SEEKING HELP Factors associated with IPV in Latinas have some similarities with those described in other ethnic groups. A systematic review among Hispanic women living in the U.S. identified that low SES and income are tightly linked to IPV in this population. Contrary to IPV studies conducted with mainly Caucasian women living in the US, inter- generational violence is a relevant risk factor for Latinas (Ali & Naylor, 2013; González-Guarda & Becerra, 2012). Studies have identified that some socio-economic factors such as access to a retirement fund, education, and salary differ based on gender in Latinx communities. Comparing time spent over the age of 15 years of paid and unpaid work in four Latin-American countries (Colombia, Mexico, Ecuador, Uruguay), disparities are marked between men and women of all ages in those countries. While paid hours per week fluctuate between 10 and 20 hours for women, labor hours paid to men ranged between 20 and 48 hours. The prospect is bleak when contrasting unpaid hours. Women used to work between 20 and 50 hours weekly without getting paid for it while men only spend 10 hours on average in unpaid jobs. Additionally, the unemployment rate is higher in women than in men across Latin- American countries. Women also face challenges associated with motherhood. For instance, the average duration in school for Latinas who were adolescents’ mothers is lower than those who were not, reducing the chances of getting a well-paid job and financial independence (Bárcena et al., 2016). These socioeconomic factors make Latinas financially vulnerable that is a main contributing factor to staying in violent relationships. Public health policies that reduce gender-based disparities and protect women’s human rights need to be on the agenda of governments to reduce the impact of these factors that greatly contribute to IPV (Milosavljevic, 2007). Other factors such as cultural values are also related to IPV in Latinas. Some qualitative studies have identified a negative contribution of gender roles to relationships’ balance and IPV in Latinas. Hispanic women consider that machismo (a cultural belief that men are superior to women and masculinity should be exaggerated) and marianismo (a cultural practice that encourages women’s behaviors of submission and demure) put themselves at higher risk to IPV (González-Guarda & Becerra, 2012; Márquez-Espinoza, 2019). Machismo and marianism are considered two cultural phenomena based on gender-based behaviors from men and women. While machismo is defined as an aggressive attitude in interpersonal relationships and an exaggeration of virility, marianismo is conceptualized as a practice in which women’s worth relies on spirituality, superior morality, and having the ability to give birth (Moisés, 2012). Such cultural practices facilitate abusive behaviors in romantic relationships as they promote men’s power over women by holding control of women’s actions, money, sexuality, and so forth (Moral de la Rubia & Ramos Basurto, 2016; Terrazas-Carrillo & Sabina, 2019). These gender roles also normalize the cycle of violence, equating love with emotional dependence which holds back victims from leaving and perpetuating violence and (Moriana Mateo, 2015). Familismo (family idealization) is a sociological term used to understand the family cultural practice in which members communicate often and should maintain reciprocal ties in order to get mutual help and feel socially connected (Garrido & Chuliá, 2021). However, familisimo can have a dark side, particularly, when leading women to believe that a real family should remain together and forgive faults because love heals everything; thus, leaving a partner is not an option and could lead to marginalization (Echeburúa- Odriozola et al., 2002). This is linked to other cultural practices around romantic love that promote women’s sacrifice for their partners as proof of real love (Echeburúa & Muñoz, 2002). CONSEQUENCES OF IPV IN LATINAS VICTIMS Victims of IPV faced several consequences in different life domains. At the work level, absenteeism and problems to be productive are frequent. These affect their ability to keep a stable wage and job (Ministerio de la Mujer y Poblaciones Vulnerables; MIMP, 2017). Further, IPV victims have a lower income compared to women who are not in abusive relationships. Reproductive health is another area impacted by IPV; a high rate of sexually transmitted infections has been found in this population. Pregnancy could be also risky as complications during childbirth have been observed. In addition, mental health consequences such as anxiety, hypervigilance, fear of being abused, depression, and traumatic symptoms are often reported (MIMP, 2017). Social isolation, conflicting interpersonal relationships, problems with self-care, self-esteem, feelings of guilt, justification of violence, and dissociation are other psychological effects of IPV (Vaca-Ferrer et al., 2020). IPV does not only impact AMANDA M. MUÑOZ-MARTÍNEZ AND RENZO AGUILAR-CACHO 75 A r t i c l e s